9.11 The Human Brain. Introduction to the Course. 1.1 - Nancy Tells a Story to Introduce her New Course: The Human Brain. 7.9 - So, what if anything is innate about face perception. Development II. 8.1 - Recap of last lecture. 8.2 - Diffusion imaging & diffusion tractography.

1. The Brain 9 Review

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the nervous system uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high quality two- or three-dimensional images of nervous system structures without use of ionizing radiation (X-rays) or radioactive tracers.

History[edit]

The first MR images of a human brain were obtained in 1978 by two groups of researchers at EMI Laboratories led by Ian Robert Young and Hugh Clow.^[1] In 1986, Charles L. Dumoulin and Howard R. Hart at General Electric developed MR angiography^[2] and fr:Denis Le Bihan, obtained the first images and later patented diffusion MRI.^[3] In 1988, Arno Villringer and colleagues demonstrated that susceptibility contrast agents may be employed in perfusion MRI.^[4] In 1990, Seiji Ogawa at AT&T Bell labs recognized that oxygen-depleted blood with dHb was attracted to a magnetic field, and discovered the technique that underlies Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI).^[5]

In the early 1990s, Peter Basser and Le Bihan working at NIH and Aaron Filler, Franklyn Howe and colleagues developed diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).^[6][7][8][9] Joseph Hajnal, Young and Graeme Bydder described the use of FLAIR pulse sequence to demonstrate high signal regions in normal white matter in 1992.^[10] In the same year, John Detre, Alan P. Koretsky and coworkers developed arterial spin labeling.^[11] In 1997, Jürgen R. Reichenbach, E. Mark Haacke and coworkers at Washington University developed Susceptibility weighted imaging.^[12]

The first study of the human brain at 3.0 T was published in 1994,^[13] and in 1998 at 8 T.^[14] Studies of the human brain have been performed at up to 9.4 T.^[15]

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Paul Lauterbur and Sir Peter Mansfield were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning MRI.

Applications[edit]

One advantage of MRI of the brain over computed tomography of the head is better tissue contrast,^[16] and it has fewer artifacts than CT when viewing the brainstem. MRI is also superior for pituitary imaging.^[17] It may however be less effective at identifying early cerebritis.^[18]

In the case of a concussion, an MRI should be avoided unless there are progressive neurological symptoms, focal neurological findings or concern of skull fracture on exam.^[19] In the analysis of a concussion, measurements of Fractional Anisotropy, Mean Diffusivity, Cerebral Blood Flow, and Global Connectivity can be taken to observe the pathophysiological mechanisms being made while in recovery.^[20]

In analysis of the fetal brain, MRI provides more information about gyration than ultrasound.^[21]

A number of different imaging modalities or sequences can be used with imaging the nervous system:

• T₁-weighted (T1W) images: Cerebrospinal fluid is dark. T₁-weighted images are useful for visualizing normal anatomy.
• T₂-weighted (T2W) images: CSF is light, but fat (and thus white matter) is darker than with T₁. T₂-weighted images are useful for visualizing pathology.^[22]
• Diffusion-weighted images (DWI): DWI uses the diffusion of water molecules to generate contrast in MR images.
• Proton density (PD) images: CSF has a relatively high level of protons, making CSF appear bright. Gray matter is brighter than white matter.^[23]

• Fluid attenuation inversion recovery (FLAIR): useful for evaluation of white matter plaques near the ventricles.^[24] It is useful in identifying demyelination.^[25]

See also[edit]

Gallery[edit]

• Brain regions on T1 MRI

• T1 (note CSF is dark) with contrast (arrow pointing to meningioma of the falx)

• Normal axial T2-weighted MR image of the brain.

• MRI image of the surface of the brain.

References[edit]

1. ^'Britain's brains produce first NMR scans'. New Scientist: 588. 1978.
2. ^'Blood-flow checker'. Popular Science: 12. 1987.
3. ^Le Bihan D, Breton E (1987). 'Method to Measure the Molecular Diffusion and/or Perfusion Parameters of Live Tissue'. US Patent # 4,809,701.
4. ^Villringer A, Rosen BR, Belliveau JW, Ackerman JL, Lauffer RB, Buxton RB, Chao YS, Wedeen VJ, Brady TJ (February 1988). 'Dynamic imaging with lanthanide chelates in normal brain: contrast due to magnetic susceptibility effects'. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 6 (2): 164–74. PMID3367774.
5. ^Faro SH, Mohamed FB (2010-01-15). Bold fMRI. a guide to functional imaging for neuroscientists. Springer. ISBN978-1-4419-1328-9. Retrieved 10 June 2015.
6. ^Howe FA, Filler AG, Bell BA, Griffiths JR (December 1992). 'Magnetic resonance neurography'. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 28 (2): 328–38. PMID1461131.
7. ^Filler AG, Howe FA, Hayes CE, Kliot M, Winn HR, Bell BA, Griffiths JR, Tsuruda JS (March 1993). 'Magnetic resonance neurography'. Lancet. 341 (8846): 659–61. PMID8095572.
8. ^Filler A (October 2009). 'Magnetic resonance neurography and diffusion tensor imaging: origins, history, and clinical impact of the first 50,000 cases with an assessment of efficacy and utility in a prospective 5000-patient study group'. Neurosurgery. 65 (4 Suppl): A29–43. doi:10.1227/01.neu.0000351279.78110.00. PMID19927075.
9. ^Basser PJ. Invention and Development of Diffusion Tensor MRI (DT-MRI or DTI) at the NIH. pp. 730–740. doi:10.1093/med/9780195369779.003.0047.
10. ^Hajnal JV, De Coene B, Lewis PD, Baudouin CJ, Cowan FM, Pennock JM, Young IR, Bydder GM (July 1992). 'High signal regions in normal white matter shown by heavily T2-weighted CSF nulled IR sequences'. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography. 16 (4): 506–13. PMID1629405.
11. ^Koretsky AP (August 2012). 'Early development of arterial spin labeling to measure regional brain blood flow by MRI'. NeuroImage. 62 (2): 602–7. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.01.005. PMC4199083. PMID22245338.
12. ^Reichenbach JR, Venkatesan R, Schillinger DJ, Kido DK, Haacke EM (July 1997). 'Small vessels in the human brain: MR venography with deoxyhemoglobin as an intrinsic contrast agent'. Radiology. 204 (1): 272–7. doi:10.1148/radiology.204.1.9205259. PMID9205259.
13. ^Mansfield P, Coxon R, Glover P (May 1994). 'Echo-planar imaging of the brain at 3.0 T: first normal volunteer results'. Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography. 18 (3): 339–43. doi:10.1097/00004728-199405000-00001. PMID8188896.
14. ^Robitaille PM, Abduljalil AM, Kangarlu A, Zhang X, Yu Y, Burgess R, Bair S, Noa P, Yang L, Zhu H, Palmer B, Jiang Z, Chakeres DM, Spigos D (October 1998). 'Human magnetic resonance imaging at 8 T'. NMR in Biomedicine. 11 (6): 263–5. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1492(199810)11:6<263::AID-NBM549>3.0.CO;2-0. PMID9802467.
15. ^Vaughan T, DelaBarre L, Snyder C, Tian J, Akgun C, Shrivastava D, Liu W, Olson C, Adriany G, Strupp J, Andersen P, Gopinath A, van de Moortele PF, Garwood M, Ugurbil K (December 2006). '9.4T human MRI: preliminary results'. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 56 (6): 1274–82. doi:10.1002/mrm.21073. PMC4406343. PMID17075852.
16. ^Ebel K, Benz-Bohm G (1999). Differential diagnosis in pediatric radiology. Thieme. pp. 538–. ISBN978-3-13-108131-5. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
17. ^Bradley WG, Brant-Zawadzki M, Cambray-Forker J (2001-01-15). MRI of the brain. Surendra Kumar. ISBN978-0-7817-2568-2. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
18. ^Roos KL, Tunkel AR (2010). Bacterial infections of the central nervous system. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 69–. ISBN978-0-444-52015-9. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
19. ^American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (24 April 2014), 'Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question', Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation, American Medical Society for Sports Medicine, retrieved 29 July 2014
20. ^Paper published in Science Direct
21. ^Garel C (2004). MRI of the fetal brain: normal development and cerebral pathologies. Springer. ISBN978-3-540-40747-8. Retrieved 24 July 2011.
22. ^Butler P, Mitchell AW, Ellis H (2007-11-19). Applied Radiological Anatomy for Medical Students. Cambridge University Press. pp. 12–. ISBN978-0-521-81939-8. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
23. ^Tofts, Paul (2005-09-01). Quantitative MRI of the Brain: Measuring Changes Caused by Disease. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 86–. ISBN978-0-470-86949-9. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
24. ^Chowdhury R, Wilson I, Rofe C, Lloyd-Jones G (2010-04-19). Radiology at a Glance. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 95–. ISBN978-1-4051-9220-0. Retrieved 18 July 2011.
25. ^Granacher RP (2007-12-20). Traumatic brain injury: methods for clinical and forensic neuropsychiatric assessment. CRC Press. pp. 247–. ISBN978-0-8493-8138-6. Retrieved 18 July 2011.

What Will You Learn?

• Discover the 'SCoRe' learning process.
• Unearth the most effective study habits.
• Master the four factors of motivation.

Course Overview

One of the most complicated and advanced computers on Earth can’t be purchased in any store. This astonishing device, responsible for storing and retrieving vast quantities of information that can be accessed at a moment’s notice, is the human brain. How does such a dynamic and powerful machine make memories, learn a language, and remember how to drive a car? What habits can we adopt to learn more effectively throughout our lives? And how do factors like traumatic injuries, stress, and mood affect our grey matter? The answers to these questions are merely the tip of the iceberg in The Learning Brain.

These 24 half-hour lectures offer in-depth and surprising lessons on how the brain learns and remembers. You begin your journey by focusing on which parts of the brain are responsible for different kinds of memory, from long-term memory for personal experiences and memorized facts to short-term memory, and how these memory systems work on a psychological and biological level. You’ll acquire a new understanding of how amnesia, aging, and sleep affect your brain. You’ll also discover better ways to absorb and retain all kinds of information in all stages of life. This course is chock full of valuable information whether you’re learning a new language at 60 or discovering calculus at 16. If you need better study habits, struggle with learning a new skill, or just worry about memories fading with age, The Learning Brainprovides illuminating insights and advice.

Map Your Brain’s Memory Areas

You’ll discover that the brain acquires, retains, and recalls information in several distinct ways.

• Explicit Learning refers to learning information that is consciously available and can be put into words. One example is “semantic memory,” which involves impersonal fact-based memories, such as the distance from the Earth to the sun or the capitals of different nations.
• Implicit Learning, by contrast, is learning that is unconscious and harder to put into words. One particularly important type of implicit learning is “procedural learning,” which is the learning of new skills such as playing the piano or playing golf.

As you learn new information and skills, you also put your working memory to use. Working memory is the cognitive system we use to hold on to information for just a few seconds or minutes at a time. For example, adding two two-digit numbers in your head or remembering the next step of a recipe while preparing a meal both utilize working memory.

While distinguishing the different learning systems that we use every day, Professor Polk also explains which regions of the brain underlie these various functions. Scientists use modern technology like fMRI and PET scans to see which parts of the brain are activated during different types of learning. By mapping out the brain in this way, doctors can isolate and treat brain damage, specific learning disabilities, and behavioral anomalies better than ever before.

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Tackle Sensitive Psychological Issues

Specific learning disabilities are also common in children around the globe, and they can be detrimental as well as disheartening. Professor Polk covers a number of both common and lesser-known roadblocks to learning that result from these impairments. While primarily focusing on dyslexia, Professor Polk discusses how learning disabilities affect children in school and how such disabilities are manifested in the brain.

Can learning sometimes be more harmful than helpful? The answer is yes. While Professor Polk delves more deeply into bad habits with his previous course, The Addictive Brain, here he briefly covers the effects of addictive substances on your brain and how drugs of abuse can hijack the very mechanisms that allow us to learn so effectively. Specifically, all addictive drugs lead to the release of abnormal amounts of the neurotransmitter dopamine, which fools the brain into reinforcing drug-taking behavior, even though it’s harmful. With repeated drug use, this reinforcement can lead to irresistible cravings and to the downward spiral of harmful behavior associated with addiction.

Professor Polk presents the latest scientific evidence on these conditions. You’ll find a cornucopia of valuable information to better educate yourself, whether you or a loved one struggles with a learning-related problem, or whether you’re simply seeking to better understand how the brain works.

Learn to Learn

Haven’t we all stayed up until dawn cramming for a test, at some point in our life? Or, haven’t we all read and re-read the same paragraph in a book or in a speech we have to give, assuming we’ve memorized it, only to fail to remember it the next day? As it turns out, there are several popular studying habits and learning methods that range from helpful to harmful, and Professor Polk untangles this web in several lectures throughout the course.

• Learn how to “SCoRe.” That is to say, Space out your practice, Challenge yourself at just the right level of difficulty, and Randomize your studies.
• Master the four factors of motivation. Discover “self-efficacy,” or your confidence in your ability to learn; “perceived control,” which is the extent you believe you control how much you learn about a subject; “intrinsic motivation,” defined as wanting to learn something; and finally “value,” or how much you believe that what you’re learning truly matters.
• Unearth the most-effective study habits. From highlighting and underlining key phrases in books to using flash cards, from staying focused on one subject to testing yourself, not all study techniques are created equal. Find out which ones work best—and worst.

Neuroscience, Not Brain Surgery

Even with no prior experience in psychology, by taking this course you’ll soon have a working knowledge of how we make and retrieve memories, learn new skills, and get better results from studying, all from the vantage point of psychology, neuroscience, and biology. With a renowned psychology professor as your guide, The Learning Brainoffers facts, techniques, and practical knowledge with real-world applications. Whether you are a student in school, a student of life, or just curious about how your own mind works, this course not only improves your understanding of learning, but it also can help you become a better learner yourself.

• Learning 101
  Beginning with a clear, working definition of the concept of “learning,” Professor Polk eases you into a course overview with simple examples of some of the topics that will be covered, including how scientists study learning, the neural basis of learning, and effective learning strategies. x
• What Amnesia Teaches Us about Learning
  In the 1950s, a Connecticut man named Henry Molaison became an unfortunate but invaluable source of information about how learning is implemented in the human brain after an experimental brain surgery led to profound amnesia. Studies of how he could (and couldn’t) learn—and what those studies uncover about how the rest of us learn—are detailed in this revealing lecture. x
• Conscious, Explicit Learning
  In this lecture, we discover that we can remember visual information better than verbal information, and that we remember vivid images better than ordinary ones. We also discover that how much you already know about a topic can have a profound influence on how easy it is to learn new information about it. These examples demonstrate conscious “explicit learning.” You may even learn how to memorize your grocery list better. x
• Episodic Memory and Eyewitness Testimony
  Any fan of courtroom drama has seen the powerful influence that the testimony of an eyewitness can have on legal proceedings. But how reliable is our memory for events that we personally witness? In this lecture, we learn that much of what we remember is often a plausible reconstruction of what might have happened, rather than an accurate memory of what actually happened. We also discover just how susceptible eyewitness memories are to distortion, and how being asked seemingly innocuous questions can lead to substantial errors in our memory. Married couples, enter at your own risk. x
• Semantic Memory
  How do you know the distance to the Earth from the Sun? With no first-hand experience, we use “semantic memory”—impersonal, fact-based memory—for world knowledge. Semantic memory also includes our grouping or categorizing of information—but how do our brains do that? Professor Polk makes short, easy work of the subject. x
• The Neural Basis of Explicit Learning
  Take a fantastic voyage into your brain to uncover the physical mechanisms involved in forming explicit memories. The voyage begins in the hippocampus, the seahorse-shaped structure in each temporal lobe, where explicit learning begins. It continues out to the cerebral cortex—the grey matter on the outside of the brain—where memories eventually become consolidated and integrated with other memories. x
• Strategies for Effective Explicit Learning
  Set your highlighters and pens down and stop re-reading your material! These are actually two of the least-effective study techniques. Professor Polk explains why these old techniques don't really work and offers four different, and more efficient, approaches to studying, which have been scientifically demonstrated to work more effectively. x
• Controversies in Explicit Learning Research
  To wrap up the course’s section on conscious, explicit learning, Professor Polk delivers an enticing “myth-busting” talk about controversial topics in the field. Do different students have different learning styles and, if so, should we tailor our teaching methods to match the learning styles of individual students? Can playing Mozart increase your baby’s intelligence? Do people repress traumatic memories and can such repressed memories later re-emerge? Professor Polk cuts through the hype and lays out the actual scientific findings related to each of these controversies. x
• Unconscious, Implicit Learning
  In this lecture, The Learning Brain switches gears from explicit to implicit learning, that is, learning that is unconscious and hard to verbalize. Discover non-associative learning, like learning to ignore a fan blowing in a room, as well as associative learning, such as conditioning, through which positive and negative reinforcement can shape behaviors over time. x
• The Psychology of Skill Learning
  Compare the first time you tried to tie your shoes to your present-day, shoelace-tying mastery. How did you come such a long way? Practice alone doesn't begin to cover the intricate process of your brain learning a skill. See which stages are involved in acquiring skill-based knowledge and how you put them all together, with this insightful discussion. x
• Language Acquisition
  Learning a new language is labor-intensive and complicated, so how do toddlers do it so easily? This lecture details how our brains progress from single-word associations to forming full, original sentences, as well as how babies learn to overcome obstacles like learning irregular past-tense verb forms (look/looked versus run/ran, for example). x
• The Neural Basis of Implicit Learning
  Turn again to the neural components of learning to better understand how unconscious, implicit learning occurs in your brain. You actually have more connections between the neurons in your brain than there are stars in our galaxy, and learning involves strengthening and weakening these connections in very specific ways. Explore how your brain does so, how it learns to predict rewards, and the role that dopamine plays in the learning process. x

• Strategies for Effective Skill Learning
  Beginning the second half of this course, we return to more practical applications of learning science. Care to step up your tennis, golf, or typing game? This series of sometimes counterintuitive, yet wildly effective, tips and tricks will surprise you. As always, proven studies and examples abound. x
• Learning Bad Habits: Addiction
  How can learning go wrong? Using the knowledge you've been taught so far, you can unmask the dark side of unconscious associations and reward-seeking behavior: addictions to drugs and alcohol. Professor Polk delves into the psychological, chemical, and neural mechanisms underlying addiction to help understand this serious and delicate subject. x
• Introduction to Working Memory
  Begin with an overview of working (or short-term) memory, which is vital to rational thought. This lecture introduces you to the idea of working memory and discusses one of the most important mechanisms involved, the “phonological loop,” which we use to store language sounds like words for brief periods of time. x
• Components of Working Memory
  Several important components of working memory are covered here: the visuospatial sketchpad, which retains images from both recent perception and from long-term memory; the central executive, which decides which cognitive functions to perform and when to perform them; and the episodic buffer, which links information from other working memory components into integrated wholes. x
• The Neural Basis of Working Memory
  Diving back into the brain itself, this lecture explores the neuroscience behind working memory in much the same way earlier lectures examined explicit memory and implicit memory. Are different parts of the brain responsible for storing visual information versus verbal information in working memory? Prepare for an illuminating ride. x
• Training Your Working Memory
  Psychological elements of working memory? Check. Neurological elements? Check. Next, we learn about the controversial topic of improving your working memory. Some scientists believe that training your working memory can improve your overall intelligence and reduce ADHD symptoms; others disagree. Both sides of these widely debated controversies are discussed. x
• How Motivation Affects Learning
  Enjoy this eye-opening discussion about our drive—or lack thereof— to learn, and the enormous impact our motivation can have. Our personal interest in a subject, our belief in our own ability to learn it, and several other factors profoundly impact what we retain about that subject. Improve your learning ability today with this practical lecture. x
• How Stress and Emotion Affect Learning
  Ask almost anyone where they were when they heard about major events like the 9/11 attacks or the Challenger explosion and they remember immediately. Why, psychologically, do those memories remain so vivid? And do short, quick moments of stress versus chronic stress affect our memories differently? How? These answers and more await you. x
• How Sleep Affects Learning
  If you think “getting a good night’s rest” is the only way that sleep affects learning, think again. Our brain is often just as active during sleep as it is while we’re awake, and what happens at a neural level during sleep has a profound impact on what we remember, and what we forget. Furthermore, different stages of sleep influence different kinds of learning and memory, and that’s just the beginning. x
• How Aging Affects Learning
  Here’s another fascinating surprise: Aging does not inevitably lead to learning and memory problems. In fact, there are substantial differences in how aging affects different cognitive functions and in how it affects different people. Fortunately, Professor Polk demonstrates several proven—and enjoyable—methods of maintaining and even improving our brains as we get older. x
• Dyslexia and Other Learning Disabilities
  In this, the fifth and final lecture on factors that influence learning and memory, several common learning disabilities are defined and explored. Learn about dyslexia, the most common learning disability, including its symptoms, the neural mechanisms that underlie it, and how difficulty in recognizing and manipulating phonemes—the set of basic sounds that get combined to form words—plays a large role. x
• Optimizing Your Learning
  Professor Polk wraps things up by discussing five strategies that can make you a better learner. These strategies draw on and integrate some of the key themes that have appeared throughout the rest of this Great Course. And, putting them into practice in your own life can help you to become the best learner you can be. x

The Brain 9 Review

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